published in Where is Iran Heading? — Regime’s Battle for Supremacy or Survival, Francois Cocombet (ed), (Paris, La Fondation d’Etudes pour le Moyen-Orient, May 2017)
“While countries normally strive to be better known and understood in order that their national interests may be respected by others, Iran’s ruling regime thrives on quite the opposite phenomenon: being misunderstood….The result is that the revolutionary government that has held power in Iran for the past 38 years is perceived differently by at least seven different major constituencies within and outside the country.”
Letter to the Washington Post dated May 27, 2017 citing the dangers of gerrymandering favoring one political party and suggesting grounds for reform
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Framing the broader issues at stake for the ruling clerics of Iran, and for the United States, in Iran’s May 19, 2017 Presidential election
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“[T]his won’t change the military situation; it does change the political situation….All eyes are on the Trump Administration to say ‘Where do we go from here?’ and there are places they can go with this that could be very productive.”
Read More“The U.S. should think about giving Putin a taste of his own medicine: injecting information into his political space. However, instead of propaganda and false messaging, we have something far more potent: the truth. Why more potent?
Read MoreInterviewed on CNBC’s “Squawk on the Street” along with Ambassador James Jeffrey about forthcoming meeting of President Trump and Chinese President Xi Jinping and the potential for China to exert a restraining influence on North Korea in light of its missile and nuclear tests.
Read MoreExcerpts of remarks to luncheon in Senate Dirksen building hosted by the Organization of Iranian American Communities, joined by Senators John McCain (AZ), Jean Shaheen (NH), Gary Peters (MI) and former Senator and Vice Presidential candidate Joseph Lieberman.
Read MoreFrom Amb. Bloomfield’s prepared statement: “Russia’s hope is that our political differences can be exacerbated, and internal divisions sharpened, such that the left and the right, Republicans and Democrats, coastal elites and the red state heartland, will never find common ground….
Read MoreCall-in interview to CNBC commenting on the Trump Administration rollout of the revised Executive Order imposing a 90-day suspension of visas to applicants from Syria, Iran, Libya, Yemen, Somalia and Sudan.
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Interviewed on CNBC’s “Squawk on the Street” as President Trump awaited arrival of Canadian PM Justin Trudeau
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“This is the White House staff, so if President Trump wants Steve Bannon to be at the table, deliberating with the senior national security agency heads, that is his call …I think you defer to the President [on] whatever serves the President’s purpose to make the best decisions.”
Read MoreInterviewed as part of documentary produced by John Florescu and shown in Central and Eastern European countries on January 20, 2017. Program runs just under 30 minutes.
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Interviewed on CNBC about foreign policy issues as confirmation hearings of SecState-designate Tillerson and others raise speculation; this segment discusses potential direction of future President Trump’s relationship with Russian leader Vladimir Putin.
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“The beginning of wisdom here is to understand that this regime is afraid of its own people…I’m saying the reason Iran is bleeding cash and casualties in Syria is that they think it’s going to come to Tehran.”
Read MoreLB one of experts interviewed in documentary produced by John Florescu and the former production team of the late Sir David Frost, and shown in Romania, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, airing between November 6-8 prior to the outcome of the US Presidential election.
Read More“It’s like an NFL team that can’t win a game….I think the people are looking and saying ‘What’s wrong with this team? Is the playbook wrong? Do we need a new Offensive Coordinator?’ Yes, we need a new National Security Strategy.
Read MoreLecture at David M. Kennedy Center, Brigham Young University
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“Power is shifting from governments to governed in the age of social media, and problems and solutions are as likely to arise from within populations as from their governments. With a more focused, updated, coherent and organized national effort in Washington, the United States can regain lost credibility and influence, and once again set a worthy example for other countries to emulate.
Read MoreHouse Foreign Affairs Committee Hearing to address concerns over the size and role of the NSC and whether legislation to require greater oversight is merited.
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With “1,000 bowls of rice” vying for resources, authority, and authorship of policy, one can understand why President Barack Obama has often relied on a tight circle of trusted White House aides rather than expecting the interagency to provide consistent and timely policy responses to world events.
Read MoreIssued by group under auspices of Association of the US Army President Gordon Sullivan, GEN, USA (Ret.)
“It should not take a war for the United States to revitalize its sense of purpose and once again embrace its role as a world leader.
What Iranians today know all too well, and Americans would profit by better understanding, is that the ‘theocrats’ secured control of Iran not by bringing down the Shah, but by bringing down the revolution.
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How Well Does Washington Understand Iran?
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Read MoreCNBC – As the 9/11 bill is currently moving on Capitol Hill which would allow U.S. citizens to sue the Saudi government for any proven damages from the September 11th attacks, President Obama is meeting with the Saudi king in Saudi Arabia.
Read MoreThe National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) reported on Friday about a conversation where US Congressman Ed Royce was addressing ‘threats posed by the Iranian mullahs’ regime’, its appalling record on human rights, and EU and US companies trading with Iran.
Read MoreNewsMax Prime – The former ambassador discuss Iran’s latest tests of ballistic missiles, some with “Israel must be wiped out” written on them. Is the U.S. turning a blind eye to these violations of UN resolutions and the Iran deal, and putting our country’s security at risk?
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Read MoreBy following the money, not only can Congress help the American public understand whether indeed the tens of billions of unfrozen assets are fueling destructive Iranian meddling in neighboring countries, it can help lay the foundation for a consensus Iran policy post-agreement that better serves American interests.
Read MoreWe need a renewed recognition among our political leaders that threats to American security require sustained bipartisan commitment to help other societies resolve and recover from conflicts. Afghanistan, like Iraq, will test U.S. leadership and define America’s role in the world.
Read MoreFox Business News: Former Assistant Secretary of State Ambassador Lincoln Bloomfield on what is needed to deal with the global terror threat.
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Read MoreFox Business News: Ambassador Lincoln Bloomfield on the Cuban president and other leaders criticizing the U.S. at the U.N. meeting.
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Fox Business: Former Assistant Secretary of State Ambassador Lincoln Bloomfield on Saudi Arabia’s concerns over the Iran nuclear deal.
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Congress should ask the administration to explain what power, authority or influence it believes the Iranian President exercises over the country’s affairs, including but not limited to the nuclear establishment. Is President Rouhani the chief executive setting policies and overseeing day-to-day stewardship over Iran’s economic assets, foreign activities, justice and law enforcement, control of the information domain and the like?
Read MoreThis report represents a preliminary effort to offer analysis and recommendations that could help shape and guide US UAV policy going forward. It looks at the military and national security benefits of UAV technologies, analyzes our current approaches to UAV development and export, and seeks to contextualize the strategic questions relating to the use of lethal UAVs outside traditional battlefields.
Read MoreAs bad as the Islamic State (ISIS) has been for the war-ravaged Middle East, the United States needs to recognize that murderous group’s de-facto creator and enabler — Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad — as an even bigger and more monstrous adversary, says a former State Department official.
Read MoreIn order to effectively combat Russia and President Vladimir Putin, the United States needs to be less transparent and more creative, former Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs Lincoln Bloomfield tells Newsmax TV.
“I’ve always been trained to believe that in security affairs, a little bit of deception and surprise goes a long way, and we’re way too transparent and predictable,”
It is time for the United States to clarify and reconfirm national policy and procedures on targeted killings with UAVs. Not only is this needed to reassure the public of adequate legal authorization and operational oversight.
Read MoreAmbassador Deborah Jones on Libya Ambassador Deborah Jones talked about the growing violence in Libya, and the political transition since the fall of Moammar Gaddafi. Ambassador Jones succeeded Ambassador Christopher Stevens, who was killed along with three other Americans in the September 11, 2012, attack on the U.S.
Read MorePrivate investment in the developing world and well-conceived public-private partnerships are two things that work. There is no easy cure for all our planet’s ills, but these are trends that can narrow the gap between the most and least advanced societies, bringing those societies left behind into the 21st century and making the world more stable and secure.
Read MoreWith so much invested and so much at stake in the Middle East, it is never too late to step up efforts to advance American interests. The credibility of presidential red lines matters, but only by exercising leadership in taming the dangers clouding the region’s future will the US preserve its influence and reputation, which are foundations of American power.
Read MoreUnchecked, hostile action in space could produce debris, orbiting the earth at nine times the speed of a bullet, so prevalent as to put at risk all sophisticated spacecraft including satellites. This could place manned and unmanned space flight at unacceptable risk of mission failure due to catastrophic collision with debris.
Read MoreSummary of the Findings of the Defense Advisory Committee, Peter G. Peterson Foundation and Stimson
“Not only has sequester occurred in fiscal year 2013, but with no fiscal deal in sight it could occur again in fiscal year 2014 and subsequent years – unless the Congress and the administration accept the reality of lower statutory budget levels….In this report, we provide 27 specific recommendations for implementing Strategic Agility that would save about $50 billion in constant fiscal year 2013 dollars, meet the budget levels required by law;
Syria is indeed a wicked problem, and the President does have other priorities. But leaders in Tehran, Riyadh, Ankara, Doha, Amman and Moscow among others have obviously determined that their future interests require concerted efforts to influence the outcome in Syria, if only to stave off the worst contingencies.
Read MoreWhile the regime’s judges, jailers, gunrunners, media censors, intelligence agents, paramilitary forces and nuclear engineers march on with their projects, all variously aimed at keeping the regional contagion of political change away from their doorstep, Washington appears to be resting its hopes on ever-tighter sanctions and a moderate new Iranian president to resolve these threats to regional peace and U.S.
Read MoreU.S.-Pakistan Relations U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan Richard Olson discussed U.S.-Pakistan relations with Stimson Center Chairman Lincoln Bloomfield. He spoke about the U.S. presence in Afghanistan and said that U.S. relations with Pakistan had improved since Pakistan reopened supply lines for NATO the previous year.
Read MoreSummary of the Findings of the Defense Advisory Committee, Peter G. Peterson Foundation and Stimson.
“This Defense Advisory Committee notes and endorses the changes already being taken by the Department of Defense to rebalance US forces toward an incrementally and proportionally greater emphasis on Asia and the Pacific.
An Independent Study Group Report in cooperation with Stimson.
“The action plan proposed here broadly outlines what roles the United States and its international and regional partners should play to support the interests of all the parties.
This decision required political courage, as it was certain to displease the Iranian fundamentalist regime with whom a negotiated end to the nuclear standoff is sought, and coming soon before the US elections. Had she not acted the U.S.
Read MoreHearing before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations
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Testimony on Syria chemical weapons issue before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Trade
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Michele Flournoy, former Undersecretary of Defense for Policy at the US Defense Department, joined Lincoln Bloomfield, Jr., Stimson Chairman of the Board, in a conversation as part of Stimson’s Chairman’s Forum series on March 6.
Conversation topics included the Middle East, with Flournoy’s assesment of the conclusion of the US’
U.S.-East Asia Relations Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian Affairs Kurt Campbell spoke at the Stimson Cente about U.S.-Asia relations. He touched on a number of issues including the rise of China, new leadership in North Korea, and Taiwan elections.
Read MoreTestimony regarding PMOI/MEK and Iran before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations and Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia
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(LB testimony begins around 2:42)
The essence of Iran’s “information operations” activity has been to derogate from the MEK’s image and influence with western governments by seeking to tie the MEK to actions highly prejudicial to the MEK’s image with target audiences in Iran, Europe and the United States.
Read MoreReport of the Bipartisan Policy Center Stabilizing Fragile States Initiative Steering Committee.
“[T]he United States faces both the necessity of maintaining the force and technical capability to break hostile enemies, and that of learning how to help weaker nations become stable, willing partners before they give rise to threats.
Families victimized by the 9/11 attacks gained some solace from the knowledge that their country did not give up its pursuit of the chief perpetrator. The nation’s military and intelligence professionals accomplished the one deed without which the decade-long response to Al Qaeda would forever have been incomplete.
Read MoreBy including close allies in the deliberative process aimed at maintaining the security of space and cyber systems against hostile threats, US decision makers can forestall dissension among friendly capitals once military action is taken, and hopefully receive strong public backing from allied governments.
Read MoreA Washington budget process capable of exerting effective influence on the security challenges of this century will do well to begin with a top-level political consensus on the goals to be pursued and the national interests at stake in our success or failure to achieve them.
Read MoreBy remembering that “it’s the adversary, stupid,” the US will better focus on the decision calculus of that government and its own political-economic-security centers of gravity, which may not assign a comparatively high value to its own access to space.
Read MorePart I
Part II
Part III
It takes years, and changes in assignment or portfolio, to come to understand the workings of U.S. foreign and defense policy, to say nothing of military operations. For those who achieve decision-making levels, knowing how things are supposed to work is an essential qualification.
Read MoreWhat is new today is not just the emergence of non-state actor adversaries, their asymmetric methods, or their penetration of our homeland – important though all of these trends are. The strategic shift we have perhaps not grasped is that success in conducting the nation’s wars is no longer a function solely of mastering the other side’s center of gravity….
Read MoreRemarks Before the Nikkei-CSIS Forum, Tokyo, Japan
“I think what is notable about Japan’s evolution is that it goes beyond Japan’s longstanding record of generous humanitarian assistance, and represents more than the familiar strategies of building important economic ties with ODA projects.
The IMET program encourages participation from the broad range of people necessary to create a healthy military culture within a country, and has adapted curricula to meet the requirements of a changing security environment. Each year, IMET participation has become more diverse, expanding beyond the traditional base of military officers.
Read MoreRemarks at the Chatham House Conference on ‘Matching Capabilities to Commitments – Can Europe Deliver?’, London, United Kingdom
“Why does the U.S. measure success by the amount of shared burden and sacrifice among allies in facing the new security challenge?
Remarks to the U.S.-Japan CIP Forum Hosted by the Vanderbilt Institute for Public Policy Studies, Washington, DC
“By now, the key government entities responsible for protecting our infrastructure in the U.S. and Japan have developed working relationships so that we are able to assist one another with early warning and other essential forms of cooperation.
Remarks to the Society for International Affairs Conference, Washington, DC
“You have seen a concerted effort by DOD and State officials as well as the White House to respond to the voices of our allies and coalition partners asking us to pay attention to their own modernization and interoperability needs.
United States Tennis Association (USTA) Event, Flushing Meadows, New York
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Hearing before the House Armed Services Committee to receive a status report on Bush Administration’s Global Defense Posture Review
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Rotary International District 6960 District Conference, South Seas Resort, Captiva Island, Florida
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Society for International Affairs, London, UK
“Unlike the Cold War, this time no one threatens to subjugate us. Our enemies have no serious political demands. They define themselves by opposition to everything we represent. This is not a winner-take-all adversary, as in the tradition of imperial powers.
On-The-Record Briefing, Washington, DC
“The Ottawa Convention offers no protection for innocent civilians in post-conflict areas from the harm caused by persistent anti-vehicle landmines, and it would take away a needed means of protection from our men and women in uniform who may be operating in harm’s way.
Press conference, Washington, DC
“You can’t roll-out a system like this unless you know whether people will use it. And the way to do that is to make sure that you have worked through whatever kinds of glitches show up when you road test it.
Delegates Lounge, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC
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Remarks to Smith College, Polus Center, Northampton, Massachusetts
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Remarks to the Parliamentarians for Global Action, Consultative Assembly of Parliamentarians for the International Criminal Court and the Rule of Law, United Nations, New York
“The lack of political accountability gives rise to my government’s conclusion that, as the lead U.S.
Remarks at the Southeastern European Cybersecurity Conference, Sofia, Bulgaria
“Damaging misuse of information technology must be made a criminal offense everywhere. My recommendation here is that you ensure that your legislation effectively covers cybercrime. In this regard, we commend to all member states the example of the laws and procedures in the Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention as a model for individual states’ legal regimes.
“Let me say, from experiences elsewhere in the world, that multilateral approaches can either be a roadmap to peace and prosperity, or a convenient excuse for inaction and paralysis. My advice is to take the initiative —
Read MoreRemarks at the Closing of the West Africa Ministerial Symposium Hosted by the Africa Center for Strategic Studies, Dakar, Senegal
“I find in ECOWAS… a passionate commitment not only to mitigate the worst conditions arising from the crisis, and to appeal for international assistance, but to chart a path – a realistic path – that accords priority to fundamental goods of political legitimacy embodied in democracy, social development built on a culture of human rights, economic progress gained with a sophisticated understanding of the relationship of corruption and instability to poverty, and the importance of justice in achieving a peaceful society.”
Conference on “Transatlantic Defense Industrial Cooperation: Challenges and Prospects” Co-sponsored by NATO and the Transatlantic Center of the German Marshall Fund of the United States, Brussels, Belgium
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United States Report to the First Biennial Meeting of States, New York, New York
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Remarks on the Occasion of the Inauguration of the Allied Command Transformation, Norfolk, Virginia
“Let us openly recognize that the likelihood of a major war in Europe is very low. This reality, far from spelling trouble for NATO, is to my mind the very opposite – a strategic indicator that demonstrates the alliance’s success.
Ceremony Acknowledging the Partnership Contributions of The Humpty Dumpty Institute, Children of Armenia Fund, and SkyLink Aviation, Inc., Treaty Room, Washington, DC
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Benjamin Franklin Room, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC
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The future of mine action and the complementary efforts to protect civilians from mines and other explosive remnants of war should be dynamic and fruitful. A great deal has been learned since the inception of humanitarian demining just over a decade ago.
Read MoreThe Greater Boston Committee Event for Landmine Clearance in Armenia, Sponsored by the Children of Armenia Fund and the Humpty Dumpty Institute, Boston, Massachusetts
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Remarks at Funeral Service of Nauru President Bernard Dowiyogo, Washington, DC
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Remarks at the Residence of the Ambassador of the Royal Thai Government, Washington, DC
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Fifth Annual Benefit Dinner for The Polus Center for Social and Economic Development, Northampton, Massachusetts
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Remarks to Organization of American States Summit-mandated Meeting of Experts on CSBMs, Miami, Florida
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Statement on the Second Annual “Night of 1000 Dinners” Being Held December 5, 2002, Washington, DC
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Grgich Hills Cellars, Napa Valley, CA
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Remarks at People to People International’s 15th Worldwide Conference, Kansas City, Missouri
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Remarks at Seminar on Humanitarian Mine Action, Dubrovnik, Croatia.
“The legacy of the war in the Balkans has many aspects. The dangers of landmines are a major factor standing in the way of a full recovery for the peoples of the Balkan region.
Remarks to Rotary International-Department of State Landmine Conference, Seattle, Washington
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Remarks at Conference on the War on Terrorism, French Senate, Paris, France
“In the political realm, even as our governments carry on the normal pattern of agreeing or disagreeing on trade, economic, and policy matters, we need to ensure that all of us reflect a core sense of political solidarity, backed by deep, tangible commitments of resources and effort on the major new strategic dimensions of this war on terrorism….The opinion of our friends and allies matters.
Global Markets and National Interests – the New Geopolitics of Energy, Capital and Information, L. P. Bloomfield, Jr., ed., Washington, DC – CSIS Press, 2002
The explosion of applied technology around the globe is redefining national interests.
Remarks at Ceremony for Exchange of Diplomatic Notes, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC
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Remarks at the U.S. Fund for UNICEF-Marshall Legacy Institute, Ronald Reagan Building, International Trade Center, Washington, DC
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Remarks Honoring Public-Private Partnerships in Mine Action and the UN Global Compact Initiative, United Nations, New York
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Remarks at the American Embassy, New Delhi, India
“I think it should be very clear that the United States has no ambition to have permanent bases in this region….That is indicative of the U.S. posture. We do not covet military basing.
We can try to develop weapons that will give future presidents alternatives to weaponizing Space and devise attack options that minimize escalation of a conflict. What seems beyond the art of the possible, however, is for future adversaries to consider U.S.
Read MoreRemarks at Special Briefing of the United States Senate Hosted by Senators Hillary Rodham Clinton (D-NY), Patrick J. Leahy (D-Vermont), and Arlen Specter (R-PA), Washington, DC
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Remarks to the Royal Institute of International Affairs 2002 Defence Conference, Chatham House, London, U.K.
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Assistant Secretary of State Bloomfield interviewed by radio host Diane Rehm following his role representing the US in concluding the July 2001 UN General Assembly agreement among 140 countries titled “Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All its Aspects Programme of Action (POA)”
Read MoreRemarks on the Plan of Action at the Conference Stake-Out, New York City
“This is a subject about which many of the participating states care a great deal. The United States cares a great deal. We are already very active in trying to redress the problems of instability in many areas of the world.
Remarks to the Monthly Non-Governmental Organization Briefing, Washington, DC
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Letter to New York Times re Experience of candidates Bush and Gore — download PDF
Read MoreForeign Press Center, Tokyo, Japan
“Unwilling to address UNSCOM’s remaining concerns over its suspected supply of prohibited weapons, lacking any effective military options, faced with a more united and less sympathetic Security Council, frustrated by Washington’s new policy approach that is less vulnerable to Iraqi manipulation, and seeing no near-term prospect of having the sanctions lifted, Iraq did what it has done several times before in such situations –
Citing Alexis de Tocqueville’s 19th century observations of American civilization, he particularly commends the American ability to “combine religious spirituality with the virtues of liberty.” If further disquisitions along these lines are to be Khatami’s chosen vehicle for engendering renewed popular acceptance of Iran in America and thereby influencing US policy, the Iranian president might profitably rethink some of his basic conceptions about the American people.
Read MoreRemarks to Middle East Petroleum & UN/US Sanctions ’98 conference, London, United Kingdom
“For all the advantages sanctions offer to their sponsors — a signal of disapproval to the offending government, a well-publicized display of moral rectitude by the President and Congress, a course of action carrying very little risk to American interests —
The US has, rightly, stood up to Iraq’s brazen efforts to evade UN scrutiny of its weapons of mass destruction programs, so that the Middle East might be spared a future calamity. But being right is not enough.
Read MoreEmirates Lecture 4, The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, Abu Dhabi, UAE
“There has also been a generational shift in American politics. It is not just the new generation represented by President Clinton and Vice-President Gore, but if one looks at the Congress as well, Republicans as well as Democrats, one will find that there is a new generation that has no memory of the Great Depression of the 1930s or the mobilization of the American nation in World War II.
Sacrifice is the moral core of leadership. A true leader demonstrates commitment to a cause, and in turn demands commitment from others, by sharing in the rigors, burdens and hardships of the tasks at hand. Too many politicians today follow the path of least risk to themselves;
Read MoreA millenium before the birth of the United States, the Abbasid Dynasty was already settling in for its 500-year reign in Baghdad. If U.S. policy in the Gulf is to have any chance of advancing American interests at an acceptable cost, it must point the way to a modus vivendi in which friendly and unfriendly actors, benign and dangerous alike, can coexist and function peacefully.
Read MoreIf ‘political Islam’ poses a potential threat to American interests, it is not the kind of phenomenon against which the Pentagon has been conditioned to defend. Nor should it necessarily be viewed in adversarial terms. A persuasive argument can be made that by treating Islamic fundamentalism as the latest “ism”
Read MoreProvided we act vigorously and purposefully to keep Asian defense relationships in good working order, we and our allies will be able to contain and counter any threat emanating from North Korea without doing violence to the NPT.
Read MoreMost Americans are humbled by Israel’s ability to act with vision despite all the PLO has done against it. Unless one has advance a comparable vision to resolve the crisis in Somalia, one ought to leaven his or her criticisms with a measure of humility.
Read MoreMuch of the American reticence to date over the use of force has stemmed from the fear of “another Beirut.” But both proponents and opponents of a greater U.S. military role in the Balkans who equate the 1982-1984 Lebanon intervention with unqualified disaster overlook a remarkable fact about that U.S.-led operation: it worked.
Read MoreHonolulu Hawaii
“Public opinion is funny. For many years, our presidents have been supported with adequate funding and freedom of action to pursue a broad array of security goals throughout the Third World — some geopolitical, some regional, and others very local in nature.
Paper presented to the American Political Science Association Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, August 1981.
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Thesis submitted to the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University, in fulfillment of requirements for M.A.L.D. degree, 1 November 1980 (notations by Prof. Geoffrey Kemp)
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Thesis submitted to the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University, in fulfillment of requirements for M.A.L.D. degree.
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Thesis submitted to the Department of Government, Harvard College, in fulfillment of requirements for a.b. degree cum laude.
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